Motivational and psychological correlates of bodybuilding dependence
Activities have an addiction potential (Allegre, Souville, Therme & Griffiths, 2006; Terry, SzaboGriffiths, 2004). Exercise, for example, may become maladaptive if taken to extremes (Ackard, Brehm & Steffen, 2002; Hall, Kerr, Kozub & Finnie, 2007; Hamer & Karageorghis, 2007). Indicators of maladaptive exercise include working out several times a day, or for longer periods than recommended, obsessing over calories expended, anger if interrupted, cancelling or avoiding social or occupational responsibilities in order to exercise, and centering daily schedules around exercise (Adams & Kirkby, 2002; Terry et al., 2004). Terms applied to such behavior include exercise dependence (Hamer & Karageorghis, 2007; Hausenblas & Symons Downs, 2002), over-exercising (Long, Smith, Midgley & Cassidy, 1993), heightened commitment to exercise (Yates, Edman, Grago & Crowell, 2001), obligatory exercise (Ackard et al., 2002; Hall et al., 2007), and exercise addiction (Annett, Cripps & Steinberg, 1995; Mathers & Walker, 1999). Importantly, exercise dependence is considered distinct from the behavior of the ‘gym enthusiast’ by the symptoms of tolerance, withdrawal, lack of control, intention efforts, time, reduction in other activities, and continuance evident in the dependent individual (Berczik et al., 2012; de Coverley Veale, 1987; Freimuth, Moniz & Kim, 2011).
Exercise dependence has long been studied with reference to compulsive running among athletes (Chapman & DeCastro, 1990; Freimuth et al., 2011; Hall et al., 2007; Ogden, Veale & Summers, 1997) and in relation to eating disorders among women (Ackard et al., 2002; Mond, Hay, Rodgers & Owen, 2006). It can be a secondary addiction to an eating disorder, or occur without an eating disorder as a primary addiction. Generally, weight and shape concerns are lower in those with primary exercise dependence, as the purpose of exercise, when an eating disorder is present, is almost exclusively for weight and shape control (Freimuth et al., 2011).
Weight training may be initiated for innocent reasons such as improving strength and fitness, over time it may take on an exaggerated importance. This is particularly likely in situations where physique and self-esteem are intertwined (Hamer & Karageorghis, 2007). Research concerning bodybuilding dependence has focused on socio-demographic, motivational and psychological correlates. For example, Smith et al. (1998) and Hurst, Hale, Smith and Collins (2000) determined that dependent persons were more likely to begin weight training to improve self-esteem. Stronger, leaner, muscular males, for example, may be per ceived as socially dominant, and more likely than their smaller counterparts to receive respect and admiration from their peers, which may foster an obsession with bodybuilding (Cafri, Van den Berg & Thompson, 2006; Smith & Stewart, 2012). Hurst et al. (2000) further noted that the social atmosphere and support gained through weight training were associated with dependence.
Bodybuilding dependence has been shown to be more likely among persons from lower socioeconomic backgrounds and those not currently involved in a romantic relationship (Smith & Hale, 2005). Given the growing literature concerning this phenomenon, the current study explored potential psychological, motivational, emotional and behavioral concomitants of bodybuilding dependence, with a focus on anger, hostility and aggression.
Anger, hostility and aggression
Anger, hostility and aggression reflect the emotional, cognitive and behavioural dimensions of a personality construct often subsumed under the generic term hostility (Smith, Glazer, Ruiz & Gallo, 2004).
Based on personal experience of fitness trainers, Gavin (2004) noted that bodybuilders tended to have aggressive personalities, a characteristic that may be further reinforced by the use of steroids (Giardino & Procidano, 2012). Bodybuilders were often motivated by the desire to rid themselves of aggressive tendencies (Crossley, 2005).
Observations such as these suggest the value of examining associations between bodybuilding dependence, anger, hostility and aggression. Also, they suggest that constructs such as stress and motives for bodybuilding might contribute to the understanding of dependence