Mali During the 11th century, the Almoravids, a Muslim group from northern Africa, conquered Ghana. By the 13th century, a new empire, called Mali, dominated West Africa. The empire began with Mande-speaking people south of Ghana, but it grew to be larger, more powerful, and richer than Ghana had been. Mali too based its wealth on gold. New deposits were found east of the Niger River, and African gold became a basic commodity in long-distance trade. Mali’s first great leader was Sundiata, whose life inspired an epic poem The Legend of Sundiata – that was passed down from one generation to the next. He defeated kingdoms around Mali and also proved to be an effective administrator. Perhaps even more famous was Mansa Musa, a 14th-century ruler. He is best known for giving away so much gold as he traveled from Mali to Mecca for the hajj that he set off a major round of inflation, seriously affecting economies all along the long-distance trade routes. Mali’s capital city, Timbuktu, became a world center of trade, education, and sophistication.

Starting around 1000, Europe showed signs of resurgents,because of the results of the Christian Crusades that put Europeans in touch with more cultures to the east through the long-distance trade routes. Before 1300 Europe was populated by serfs, or peasants tied to lands owned by respect , living in rural areas relatively isolated from others. No large cities existed yet, like the metropolises in China, the Middle East, and northern Africa. Many demographic changes took place that altered life in Europe: The Agricultural Largely through contacts with others, Europeans learned and adapted agricultural techniques and inventions that greatly increased their crop production. They perfected the three-field system, in which they rotated crops, allowing a field to remain every third year. They also used iron plows much better suited to the heavy soils of northern and western Europe. Watermills, horses, and horse harnesses all in use in other areas of the world contributed to farming efficiency. Population increases – With the increase in crop production came population growth, with more hands available to expand agriculture.